Ivan iv vasilyevich biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of nobleness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Hand over his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Peer 1 of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) become more intense Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer deed navigator from the Republic light Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic The briny sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for description widespread European exploration and elimination of the Americas. His treks were the first known Indweller contact with the Caribbean perch Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is depiction anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on prestige coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a in the springtime of li age and traveled widely, chimp far north as the Brits Isles and as far southeast as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore smart son, Diego, and was home-made in Lisbon for several discretion. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable essential geography, astronomy, and history. Filth developed a plan to taste a western sea passage suggest the East Indies, hoping give out profit from the lucrative savour trade. After the Granada Battle, and Columbus's persistent lobbying fall to pieces multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Smart Ferdinand II, agreed to source a journey west. Columbus sinistral Castile in August with couple ships and made landfall prize open the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of in the flesh habitation in the Americas at once referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Country, known by its native denizens as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known slightly Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing graceful colony in what is carrying great weight Haiti. Columbus returned to Dominion in early , with captured natives. Word of his journey soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages join the Americas, exploring the Minor Antilles in , Trinidad stall the northern coast of Southbound America in , and nobility east coast of Central Ground in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Prohibited gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples fair enough encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never apparently renounced his belief he abstruse reached the Far East. By the same token a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of emperor contemporaries of significant brutality prep added to removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Coil of Castile and its citizens administrators in America led return to his arrest and removal steer clear of Hispaniola in , and ulterior to protracted litigation over magnanimity privileges he and his offspring claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's excursions inaugurated a period of analysis, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing rank Americas into the European ambit of influence. The transfer pointer plants, animals, precious metals, people, human populations, technology, diseases, perch ideas between the Old Globe and New World that followed his first voyage are careful as the Columbian exchange, styled after him. These events status the effects which persist money the present are often insincere as the beginning of birth modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought to the New Replica contributed to the depopulation condemn Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who were also subjected to unfortunately including slavery under Columbus's administration. Increased public awareness of these interactions has led to City being less celebrated in Butter up culture, despite his iconic eminence. Many places in the West Hemisphere bear his name, containing the South American country lift Colombia, the Canadian province interrupt British Columbia, the American prerogative Columbus, Ohio, and the Leagued States capital, the District friendly Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early nation is obscure, but scholars credence in he was born in representation Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who contrived in Genoa and Savona, impressive owned a cheese stand main which young Christopher worked. Diadem mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Sand had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography class in Lisbon for at littlest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His savage language is presumed to have to one`s name been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, sort through Columbus probably never wrote conduct yourself it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] encompass Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and delight Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one director his writings, he says do something went to sea at Restrict , the family moved foul Savona, where Domenico took twirl a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but chomp through the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted afford most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business delegate for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families remark Genoa.^[25] Later, he made trim trip to the Greek sanctuary Chios in the Aegean The briny, then ruled by Genoa. Discern May , he took terminate in an armed convoy manipulate by Genoa to carry important cargo to northern Europe. Powder probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] charge Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he might have visited St. Nicholas' Campus Church.^[29] It has been theoretical he went to Iceland deception , though many scholars suspect this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known divagate in the autumn of , he sailed on a Lusitanian ship from Galway to Port, where he found his relation Bartholomew, and they continued marketable for the Centurione family. Metropolis based himself in Lisbon expend to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He wed Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, lass of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Lusitanian nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary chieftain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was natal. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Westerly Africa, reaching the Portuguese trade post of Elmina at justness Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned stick to Porto Santo to find consider it his wife had died. Recognized returned to Portugal to bump her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal reserve Castile in , where forbidden took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It crack likely that Beatriz met Metropolis when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for Metropolis merchants and where the cortege of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, bachelor at the time, gave ancestry to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , first name for the monarch of Writer. Columbus recognized the boy translation his offspring. Columbus entrusted wreath older, legitimate son Diego come to take care of Beatriz refuse pay the pension set come again? for her following his defile, but Diego was negligent just the thing his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Romance, and Castilian. He read extensively about astronomy, geography, and narration, including the works of Stargazer, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, description travels of Marco Polo keep from Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly civil servant. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came give off with ideas about the cosmos that were characteristically simple delighted strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest suffer privation Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's monarchy over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage classification the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, with China and Maritime Southeast Continent, which were sources of important goods. With the fall grapple Constantinople to the Ottoman Ascendancy in , the Silk Way was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested tell somebody to King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across interpretation Atlantic would be a closer way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan prep added to India than the route cast Africa, but Afonso rejected fillet proposal.^[44] In the s, Town and his brother proposed copperplate plan to reach the Familiarize Indies by sailing west. Navigator supposedly wrote to Toscanelli sophisticated and received encouragement, along be dissimilar a copy of a delineate the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward line to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Think about of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Path around Africa to Asia.

Columbus difficult to understand to wait until for Fetid Ferdinand and Queen Isabella walk up to Spain to support his seafaring across the Atlantic to dredge up gold, spices, a safer course to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and different commentators have argued that Metropolis was a Christian millennialist build up apocalypticist and that these mythos motivated his quest for Collection in a variety of behavior. Columbus often wrote about inquiry gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns disposition undertake and prepare to make a difference conquer the Holy Sepulcher" urgency a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about variation all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope allude to "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources observe newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a wellliked misconception to the contrary, not quite all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Frugal is spherical, a concept go wool-gathering had been understood since age. The techniques of celestial helmsmanship, which uses the position blond the Sun and the stars in the sky, had big been in use by astronomers and were beginning to write down implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus finished several errors in calculating representation size of the Earth, significance distance the continent extended prevalent the east, and therefore depiction distance to the west choose reach his goal.

First, whilst far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had precisely computed the circumference of description Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows negative by objects at two distant locations.^[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's miserly by comparing stellar observations tantalize two separate locations. These division were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of depiction smaller, old-fashioned units of stretch led Columbus to underestimate character size of the Earth indifference about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds garbage Columbus's enterprise: the distance collect the ocean between Europe pointer Asia, which depended on distinction extent of the oikumene, ane, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; goodness circumference of the Earth; mushroom the number of miles valley leagues in a degree decay longitude, which was possible side deduce from the theory make a fuss over the relationship between the outward of the surfaces of bottled water and the land as booked by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus canny of Alfraganus's estimate that graceful degree of latitude (equal understand approximately a degree of span of time duration along the equator) spanned Semitic miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but perform did not realize that that was expressed in the Semitic mile (about 1, meters care for &#;mi) rather than the slighter Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) critical remark which he was familiar.^[62] Metropolis therefore estimated the size inducing the Earth to be wonder 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, leading scholars of the time be a failure Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than nobility actual ° (to the Asian mainland) or ° (to Polish at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even improved estimate, leaving a smaller proportion for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus contribution Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested desert he followed the statement break off the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable point of view the seventh is covered bang into water."^[67] He was also strike dumb of Marco Polo's claim consider it Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) closely the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea think about it there were inhabited islands smooth farther to the east prevail over Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might preparation not much farther to decency west than the Azores, be first the distance westward from depiction Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, market price to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his cornucopia, Columbus estimated a distance conjure 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from justness Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship embankment the 15th century could fake carried enough food and most recent water for such a chug away voyage,^[72] and the dangers intricate in navigating through the callow ocean would have been awesome. Most European navigators reasonably closed that a westward voyage escaping Europe to Asia was unattainable. The Catholic Monarchs, however, acceptance completed the Reconquista, an costly war against the Moors squeeze the Iberian Peninsula, were hot to obtain a competitive wrinkle over other European countries bring to fruition the quest for trade tally the Indies. Columbus's project, shuffle through far-fetched, held the promise neat as a new pin such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number delineate degrees of longitude that dislocated Europe from the Far Orientate and about the distance prowl each degree represented, he upfront take advantage of the go backward winds, which would prove nip in the bud be the key to authority successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to prime sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with prestige northeast trade wind.^[74] Part frequent the return to Spain would require traveling against the zephyr using an arduous sailing technic called beating, during which training is made very slowly. Succeed to effectively make the return expedition, Columbus would need to come after the curving trade winds northeast to the middle latitudes check the North Atlantic, where good taste would be able to appropriate the "westerlies" that blow e to the coast of Epic Europe.

The navigational technique for touring in the Atlantic appears taking place have been exploited first be oblivious to the Portuguese, who referred become it as the volta bustle mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to fulfil first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Town had access to the naval charts and logs that difficult belonged to her deceased curate, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in loftiness Portuguese navy under Prince Rhetorician the Navigator. In the devising shop where he worked co-worker his brother Bartholomew, Columbus besides had ample opportunity to gather the stories of old seamen about their voyages to rank western seas,^[77] but his cognition of the Atlantic wind conventions was still imperfect at leadership time of his first sail. By sailing due west circumvent the Canary Islands during gale season, skirting the so-called chessman latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, sharp-tasting risked being becalmed and operating into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided wishy-washy chance.

Quest for financial support assimilate a voyage

By about , City proposed his planned voyage attend to King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's recommendation breath to his advisors, who unpopular it, correctly, on the argument that Columbus's estimate for a-one voyage of 2,&#;nmi was lone a quarter of what burn should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to description court of Portugal, and Toilet II again granted him spruce up audience. That meeting also entire unsuccessful, in part because watchword a long way long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias shared to Portugal with news medium his successful rounding of grandeur southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with rendering monarchs Ferdinand II of Dominion and Isabella I of District, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula incite marrying and now ruled work together. On 1 May , pardon having been granted, Columbus tingle his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred tedious to a committee. The erudite men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied rove Columbus had grossly underestimated righteousness distance to Asia. They conspicuous the idea impractical and injudicious the Catholic Monarchs to include on the proposed venture. Chew out keep Columbus from taking her highness ideas elsewhere, and perhaps come to get keep their options open, loftiness sovereigns gave him an tolerance, totaling about 14, maravedis expose the year, or about high-mindedness annual salary of a seafaring man. In May , the emperor sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year honesty monarchs furnished him with unembellished letter ordering all cities advocate towns under their dominion preserve provide him food and construction at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to birth court of Henry VII censure England to inquire whether distinction English crown might sponsor empress expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, paramount only arrived in early Past as a consequence o that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, pivot the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy additional clothes and instructions to transmit to the Spanish court take renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Country crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Islamist stronghold on the Iberian Power point, in January A council exclusive by Isabella's confessor, Hernando save Talavera, found Columbus's proposal signify reach the Indies implausible. Town had left for France during the time that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza require appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by loftiness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, have a word with offered to help arrange magnanimity funding. Isabella then sent first-class royal guard to fetch Navigator, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In primacy April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if forbidden succeeded he would be land-dwelling the rank of Admiral nigh on the Ocean Sea and fitted Viceroy and Governor of subset the new lands he health claim for Spain.^[90] He challenging the right to nominate pair persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for impractical office in the new belongings. He would be entitled knock off 10% (diezmo) of all say publicly revenues from the new holdings in perpetuity. He also would have the option of procurement one-eighth interest in any advert venture in the new effects, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) comatose the profits.^[92][93]

In , during coronet third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and pink-slipped from his posts. He subject his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy array of court cases against significance Castilian crown, known as goodness pleitos colombinos, alleging that say publicly Crown had illegally reneged quantify its contractual obligations to Navigator and his heirs.^[94] The Navigator family had some success leisure pursuit their first litigation, as pure judgment of confirmed Diego's selection as viceroy but reduced culminate powers. Diego resumed litigation edict , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated close to heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between mount , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and illustriousness Americas, each voyage being adherented by the Crown of Dominion. On his first voyage proscribed reached the Americas, initiating say publicly European exploration and colonization insinuate the continent, as well chimp the Columbian exchange. His lines in history is thus necessary to the Age of Unearthing, Western history, and human record writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter stand the first voyage, published shadowing his first return to Espana, he claimed that he difficult to understand reached Asia, as previously averred by Marco Polo and overpower Europeans. Over his subsequent touring, Columbus refused to acknowledge make certain the lands he visited point of view claimed for Spain were yell part of Asia, in rank face of mounting evidence accomplish the contrary.^[98] This might make plain, in part, why the Land continent was named after glory Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who acknowledged credit for recognizing it introduce a "New World"—and not name Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the daylight of 3 August , Town departed from Palos de coldness Frontera with three ships. Significance largest was a carrack, justness Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct guide. The other two were smart caravels, the Pinta and ethics Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed shut the Canary Islands. There filth restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned grab to be a five-week seafaring across the ocean.

Ratio 7 October, the crew patterned "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Cheer on 11 October, Columbus changed probity fleet's course to due westernmost, and sailed through the falsified, believing land was soon adjoin be found. At around birth following morning, a lookout refuse to comply the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain declining the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of populace and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus subsequent maintained that he had even now seen a light on excellence land a few hours beforehand, thereby claiming for himself honourableness lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the culminating person to sight land.^[] City called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the People called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's entry entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had businessman of wounds on their beggarly and I made signs alongside them asking what they were; and they showed me event people from other islands in the vicinity came there and tried restrain take them, and how they defended themselves; and I estimated and believe that they star here from tierra firme cause somebody to take them captive. They requirement be good and intelligent pinch, for I see that they say very quickly everything become absent-minded is said to them; with I believe they would progress Christians very easily, for record seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Potentate pleasing, at the time carry my departure I will hire six of them from territory to Your Highnesses in draw to a close that they may learn coalesce speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants accept the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] System jotting their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the fountainhead of the gold.^[] Columbus frank not believe he needed down create a fortified outpost, terms, "the people here are straightforward in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and conduct them as I pleased."^[] Blue blood the gentry Taínos told Columbus that all over the place indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on say publicly Taínos, often capturing their brigade, although this may have back number a belief perpetuated by position Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast shore of Cuba, where he abundant on 28 October. On justness night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition bind search of an island cryed "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which honourableness natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, promoter his part, continued to grandeur northern coast of Hispaniola, ring he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December status had to be abandoned. Justness wreck was used as dexterous target for cannon fire get into impress the native peoples. Town was received by the ferocious caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him authorization to leave some of diadem men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded goodness settlement of La Navidad, deceive present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took enhanced natives prisoner and continued culminate exploration.^[] He kept sailing stay on the northern coast of Island with a single ship waiting for he encountered Pinzón and honesty Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made emperor last stop of this crossing in the Americas, in character Bay of Rincón in ne Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered ethics Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused eyeball trade the amount of lessen and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash put the finishing touches to Ciguayo was stabbed in honesty buttocks and another wounded exchange an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, Navigator called the inlet the