Hamilcar barca death in paradise

Carthaginian general (c. – BC)

Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤁𐤓𐤒, romanized:&#;Ḥomilqart Barqa; c.&#; – &#;BC) was a Carthaginian general enjoin statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of General, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal high-mindedness Fair.

Hamilcar commanded the African land forces in Sicily cause the collapse of &#;BC to &#;BC, during rendering latter stages of the Twig Punic War. He kept jurisdiction army intact and led spruce successful guerrilla war against prestige Romans in Sicily. Hamilcar withdraw to Carthage after the at peace treaty in &#;BC, following high-mindedness defeat of Carthage. When rendering Mercenary War broke out train in &#;BC, Hamilcar was recalled activate command and was instrumental comprise concluding that conflict successfully. Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian expedition support Spain in &#;BC, and beseech eight years expanded the locale of Carthage in Spain already dying in battle in BC. He may have been solid for creating the strategy which his son Hannibal implemented look onto the Second Punic War board bring the Roman Republic seal to defeat.

Name

Main articles: Hamilcar, B-R-Q, and Barcids

Hamilcar is dignity latinization of Hamílkas (Ancient Greek: Ἁμίλκας), the hellenized form more than a few the common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian masculinegiven nameḤMLK (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊)^[1] or ḤMLQRT (𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕),^{[citation needed]} meaning "Melqart's brother".^[1]

The cognomen or epithet BRQ (𐤁𐤓𐤒) means "thunderbolt" or "shining". Traffic is cognate with the Semite name Barq, Maltese word Berqa, the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic name Barkho, and the Hebrew nameBarak abide equivalent to the GreekKeraunos, which was borne by many commanders contemporary with Hamilcar and culminate son Hannibal.^[3]

Early life

Little is get around about the origins or version of the Barca family erstwhile to the Punic Wars. According to the Dictionary of Someone Biography, it has been advisable that the Barca family pioneer came from Cyrene, i.e., recent Libya.^[4] Lance Serge states turn Hamilcar's family was part worm your way in the landed aristocracy of Carthage.^[5] Hamilcar was 28 when subside received the Sicilian command mop the floor with BC. By this time proscribed had three daughters, and authority son Hannibal was born on the same year.

Situation descent Sicily

The war, which had in motion in BC, continued after interpretation Romans abandoned Africa; neither keep gained a decisive advantage unconfirmed BC. The Romans rebuilt their fleet after losing ships fall apart a storm in BC, broaden new ships, and captured Panormus (modern Palermo) in BC; ships were lost in another tornado in BC. The Romans esoteric occupied most of Sicily shy BC and they besieged leadership last two Carthaginian strongholds&#;&#; in magnanimity extreme west. The situation at odds when the surprise attack muscle the Carthaginian fleet met turnup for the books at the Battle of Drepana and the following Carthaginian completion at the Battle of Phintias; the Romans were all nevertheless swept from the sea. Escort was to be seven seniority before Rome again attempted abrupt field a substantial fleet.

The Carthaginians had gained command of probity sea after their victories scam BC, but they only booked two cities in Sicily: Lilybaeum and Drepanum by the heart Hamilcar took up command. Glory Carthaginian state was led gross the landed aristocracy at primacy time, and they preferred flavour expand across northern Africa in preference to of pursuing an aggressive guideline in Sicily. Hanno "The Great"^[14] was in charge of process in Africa since BC essential had conquered considerable territory unused BC.^[15] Carthage did not thinking advantage of their naval primacy and carry the war fall prey to Italy other than launching deft few raids.

Carthage at that time was feeling the fuse of the prolonged conflict. Soupзon addition to maintaining a contour and soldiers in Sicily, they were also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in northern Africa.^[16] As a result, Hamilcar was given a fairly small service and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn; Carthage put chief of its ships into set to save money and unforced up manpower, so by BC, Carthage had no ships study speak of in Sicily.^[17]

Hamilcar call in Sicily

The Carthaginian leadership doubtlessly thought Rome had been downcast and invested little manpower bank on Sicily.^[18] With a small jaggedly and no money to tie new troops, Hamilcar's strategic basis probably was to maintain smart stalemate, as he had neither the resources to win say publicly war nor the authority secure peacefully settle it.^[19] Hamilcar was in command of a greedy army composed of multiple nationalities and his ability to swimmingly lead this force demonstrates potentate skill as field commander. Proscribed employed combined arms tactics, similar Alexander and Pyrrhus,^[20] and cap strategy was similar to primacy one employed by Fabius Maximus during the Second Punic Combat, ironically against Hannibal, Hamilcar's firstborn son. The difference was depart Fabius commanded a numerically higher army to his opponent, difficult to understand no supply problems, and difficult room to manoeuvre, while Hamilcar was mostly static, had straight far smaller army than prestige Romans and was dependent impede seaborne supplies from Carthage.

Panormus BC – BC

Hamilcar, upon beguiling command in the summer replicate BC,^[21] punished the rebellious mercenaries (who had revolted because replicate overdue payments) by murdering several of them at night humbling drowning the rest at sea,^[22] and dismissing many to changing parts of northern Africa. Bang into a reduced army and party, Hamilcar commenced his operations.^[23] Ethics Romans had divided their forces: Consul Lucius Caelius Metellus was near Lilybaeum, while Numerius Fabius Buteo was besieging Drepanum move away that time. Hamilcar probably fought an inconclusive battle at Drepanum,^[22] but there is cause permission doubt this.^[24]

Hamilcar next raided Locri in Bruttium and the element around Brindisi in BC.^[25] Sovereign state his return he seized unadulterated strong position on Mount Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, just north bear out Palermo or Mt. Castellacio, 7 miles north-west of Palermo),^[26] shaft not only maintained himself accept all attacks, but carried concept with his seaborne raids farreaching from Catana^[27] in Sicily chitchat as far as Cumae dupe central Italy.^[29] He also fracas about improving the spirit become aware of the army, and succeeded modern creating a highly disciplined increase in intensity versatile force. While Hamilcar won no large-scale battle or recaptured any cities lost to primacy Romans, he waged a malignant campaign against the enemy, celebrated caused a constant drain turmoil Roman resources. However, if Hamilcar had hoped to recapture Panormus, he failed in his tactics. Roman forces led by position consuls Manius Otacilius Crassus have a word with Marcus Fabius Licinus achieved petite against Hamilcar in BC, champion the consuls of BC, Marcus Fabius Bueto and Atilius Bulbus, fared no better.

Eryx BC – BC

In BC, Hamilcar transferred his army at night fail to notice sea^[30] to a similar label on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano),^[31] overexert which he was able take advantage of lend support to the harassed garrison in the neighbouring metropolitan of Drepanum (Trapani). Hamilcar affected the town of Eryx, captured by the Romans in BC, after destroying the Roman encampment, and positioned his army amidst the Roman forces stationed combination the summit and their bivouac at the base of honesty mountain.^[32] He removed the relations to Drepana.^[30] Hamilcar continued empress activities unhindered from his current for another two years, lifetime supplied by road from Drepana,^[33] although Carthaginian ships had antediluvian withdrawn from Sicily by that time and no naval raids were launched.^[17] During one motionless the raids, when troops hang a subordinate commander named Bodostor engaged in plunder against influence orders of Hamilcar and greeting severe casualties when the Book caught up to them, Hamilcar requested a truce to eradicate his dead. Roman consul Fundanius (/2 BC) arrogantly replied guarantee Hamilcar should request a suspension of hostilities to save his living become more intense denied the request.^[34] Hamilcar managed to inflict severe casualties hostile the Romans soon after, leading when the Roman consul call for a truce to bury jurisdiction dead, Hamilcar replied that realm quarrel was with the sustenance only and the dead confidential already settled their dues, instruction granted the truce.^[35]

The actions prime Hamilcar, and his immunity although defeat, plus the stalemate trite the siege of Lilybaeum caused the Romans to start property a fleet in BC nick seek a decision at briny deep. However, the constant skirmishing outofdoors ultimate victory may have caused the morale of some prime Hamilcar's troops to crack instruct 1, Celtic mercenaries tried do good to betray the Punic camp extremity the Romans, which was foiled.^[36] Hamilcar had to promise dangerous rewards to keep the self-respect of his army up, which was to produce near lethal problems for Carthage later hinder.

Roman response: privately funded fleet

The Roman Republic was nearly dirt-poor and had to borrow currency from wealthy citizens to cache the construction of a contour of quinqueremes, which blockaded African positions in Sicily in BC by seizing the harbour outline Drepana and anchorages at Lilybaeum, while Roman soldiers built besiegement works around Drepanum.^[37] The better-trained Roman fleet^[38] defeated a hotfoot raised, undermanned and ill-trained Unfaithful fleet at battle of greatness Aegates Islands in BC, sarcastic Sicily off from Carthage. Punic leadership requested terms to justness victorious Roman commander, Gaius Lutatius Catulus and authorised Hamilcar Barca to open negotiations, probably dispense avoid the responsibility of primacy defeat. Hamilcar in turn downcast Gisco,^[39] the Carthaginian commander refreshing Lilybaeum, to conduct the council. Carthage often hauled defeated generals and admirals before the Obstacle of and had them crucified, so Hamilcar probably distanced living soul from the possibility of litigation if the Roman terms tainted out to be harsh generous for Carthaginian authorities to test a scapegoat.^[40]

Peace of Lutatius conditions of the treaty

Main article: Lutatius treaty

This treaty replaced all past treaties between the two intelligence. The initial conditions laid sojourn by Lutatius to Gisco were:^[41]

• The Carthaginians will evacuate all Sicily.
• Carthage should not make war steamy Syracuse and their allies.
• Carthage would pay Rome 2, Euboean pearly talents (56 tons) over fastidious year period as reparations.
• The Punic army would surrender their weapons and all Roman deserters immediately.

Hamilcar Barca refused the demand set upon surrender Roman deserters or demobilize Carthaginian soldiers, despite being endangered by Lutatius to have picture Punic army pass under birth yoke.^[42] Lutatius did not measure the issue further, and significance Carthaginian soldiers were later legalized to leave Sicily under armed struggle with their honor intact,^[43] tell without any token of yielding – a rare gesture despite the fact that by the Romans to splendid defeated enemy. Roman deserters could have been surrendered on on the rocks later date.^[44]

Lutatius did not hold the authority to ratify grandeur agreement he made with Hamilcar, so he forwarded them jab the Comitia Centuriata in Roma. The Romans rejected these premises and appointed ten commissioners, defeat by Quantius Lutatius Cerco, kin of the consul and being consul in BC, to review the conditions.^[45] They added terrible conditions and amended some training the ones given by Lutatius:^[46]

• Carthage would evacuate all islands halfway Italy and Sicily – unquestionably the Aegates Islands in supplement to the Aeolian Islands. That meant Roman acknowledgement of African control over Malta, Pantelleria, Sardegna and Corsica.
• Carthage would pay 2, silver talents in 10 day installments, and 1, talents immediately; a total of 3, wit as war reparations.
• Carthage will buy out all Punic prisoners, while accomplish Roman prisoners would be unambiguous without payment of ransom.^[47]
• Carthaginian navy were forbidden to sail before Italian shores or those style their allies.^[44]
• Neither side should sunny war on the other's alinement, or seek to change their allegiance by allying with them directly or interfering with their internal affairs. Neither side would seek to recruit soldiers, impose tribute or build public readiness on the other power's territories.^[48]

The last condition is mentioned wishywashy Polybius in place of integrity one regarding not making contest on Syracuse. It is conceivable that Hamilcar Barca secured character last clause after the basic conditions, which were more approving to Carthage, was altered exceed Rome with a harsher connotation. Hamilcar Barca gathered the African soldiers from Drepana and Eryx at Lilybaeum, surrendered his command,^[49] returned to Carthage and withdraw to private life, leaving Gisco and the Carthaginian government go up against pay off his soldiers. What was the motivation behind that act, it was resented uninviting the mercenaries left behind pile Sicily.

Truceless War

The "Undefeated" swarm now created a unique disconcert for Carthage. Had Hamilcar accept a decisive defeat, casualties bracket prisoners would have diminished their numbers and Carthage would control had an excuse not mention pay anything. But now integrity 20, man army had in the matter of be paid their full franchise.

Gisco sensibly sent the armed force to Carthage in small associations with intervals in between^[50] to such a degree accord the government could pay them off without trouble. However, greatness Carthaginian authorities waited until influence whole army had gathered deride Carthage, probably by the summertime of BC. As the concert on the Punic population hyperbolic, Carthaginian authorities then sent them off to Sicca, planning tote up plead with the whole grey to forgo their unpaid rate by pointing out the devout financial situation of Carthage.^[51] Hamilcar's former soldiers, who had antique kept together only by queen personal authority and by birth promise of good pay, impecunious out into open mutiny in times gone by Hanno the Great tried about impose this, and marched round-table Carthage and encamped at Port. The soldiers refused to refuse to go along with Hamilcar as an arbitrator, cross by his refusal to go along with his army from Sicily stand for retiring to Carthage as in a little while as the treaty with Riot was formalized, and although Carthage at this point conceded assign all their demands, things in good time boiled over and started picture conflict known as the Savage War. The rebels, under Spendius and Matho, were joined disrespect 70, African subjects of Carthage.^[52] The rebels divided their forces: detachments were sent to beleaguer Utica and Hippo, while starkness cut Carthage off from rendering mainland, probably in the frost of BC or spring put a stop to BC.

Hamilcar recalled

Hanno the Waiting in the wings was given command of significance Punic army, which was peer from Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries recruited from abroad, plus horsemen squadrons and elephants. Hanno sailed to Utica in the fountain of BC, obtained siege paraphernalia from the city and overran the rebel camp, the rebels fleeing before the charging Unfaithful elephants. Hanno, accustomed to enmity Libyans and Numidians, did yell anticipate any further trouble crucial left his army for Metropolis. However, the rebels regrouped, shaft observing lax discipline among prestige Punic troops, launched a take the wind out of your sails sortie and routed the Perfidious army while Hanno was absent,^[53] driving the survivors to City and capturing all the bags. Hanno marshaled his soldiers, however twice failed to engage influence rebels under favorable conditions suffer twice failed to surprise them on other occasions. The African government then raised an flock of 10, soldiers and 70 elephants and put Hamilcar Barca in command. This army was small for leading a effect against the stronger rebel stay, especially to lead into a- pitched battle. The Carthaginians requisite to gain the far macrobiotic of the Bagradas, so they could manoeuvre freely, but called for the strength to force well-ordered crossing against the superior dissension force guarding against this. Hanno posted his army near Hippopotamus Acra, where Matho's army was besieging the town.^[55]

Battle of Macar River

Main article: Battle of interpretation Bagradas River ( BC)

The rebels held the hills to high-mindedness west of Carthage and leadership only bridge across the Bagradas river leading to Utica.^[56] Hamilcar observed that wind blowing evacuate a certain direction uncovered a-one sandbar at the river losing that was fordable and, bring round cover of night, the Perfidious army left Carthage and intersectant the river. Hamilcar aimed resting on attack the small rebel tie holding the bridge, but Spendius led the rebel force beleaguering Utica to confront Hamilcar. Description Carthaginian army was caught imprint a pincer movement; Hamilcar clone to retreat, and Spendius not probable attempted to trap the outnumbered Carthaginians against the river partner his two forces, pinning them with one and out-flanking them with the other. When her highness troops rushed towards the in due course Carthaginians, Spendius was either not up to to control them or accounted that the Carthaginians were escaped and encouraged his forces' be of interest. Hamilcar had managed to call his new recruits in good drill and basic battlefield maneuvers before they left Carthage. Gorilla the two rebel forces came into clear sight the Carthaginians wheeled, and marched away. Greatness Carthaginians were marching in and above order so they could show a pre-planned manoeuvre which they had practiced in Carthage, however the rebels, many of whom were inexperienced soldiers, believed focus the Carthaginians were running stop. Shouting encouragement to each pander to they broke into a dash to pursue. Hamilcar unleashed culminate trap as the disorderly rebels closed on his formation. Rightfully the cavalry and then blue blood the gentry elephants came closer to description infantry Hamilcar ordered each confine turn to also wheel examine to face the rebels. Authority modern historian Dexter Hoyos stresses that "[s]uch manoeuvres were admiration the simplest that any legions could learn, once it perfect the absolute basics of demonstration in formation".

It is not punctually known how Hamilcar managed attain outwit the rebels. According find time for one line of thought,^[61] class Carthaginian army order of stride had the War Elephants influential the column, with the calm down troops and cavalry behind decency elephants. Heavy infantry formed excellence rearguard, and the whole armed force marched in a single row in battle formation.^[61]

According to selection line of thought,^[62] Hamilcar’s service marched in three separate columns, with the war elephants be situated nearest the rebel army. Representation cavalry and light infantry were in the middle, while description heavy infantry was posted conclusive from the rebel army.^[62]

Through dazzling maneuvering, Hamilcar inflicted a massive defeat on the rebel shoring up, leading to the killing get a hold 8, mercenaries and the capturing of 2, men.^[63] Hamilcar engaged the bridge, then established ensnare over the surrounding region. Violently of the surviving rebels miserable towards Utica; others, after body driven from their camp obstruct the bridge, fled to Port.

Hamilcar trapped

Hamilcar's victory opened notice with Utica, and gave Hamilcar the chance to bring close at hand towns under Carthaginian control wishy-washy force or negotiations. He forceful no attempt to join Hanno near Utica. Spendius rallied consummate forces, was reinforced by unornamented detachment largely made of Gauls under Autaritus and shadowed Hamilcar as he advanced south eastward, keeping to the high prominence to avoid Carthaginian elephants put forward cavalry and harassing their conflicting at every possible opportunity. These "Fabian tactics" continued until Hamilcar encamped in a valley, perhaps near Nepheris, and the rebels trapped his army, with goodness Libyans blocking the exit, Spendius and his troops camping fasten the Punic army and illustriousness Numidians covering Hamilcar's rear. Hamilcar's army was saved by simon-pure luck – a Numidian headman, Naravas, who would later wed Hamilcar's third daughter, defected form a junction with 2, horsemen. Hamilcar exited goodness valley and, after a hard-fought battle, defeated the army promote Spendius. The rebel loss was 8, dead with 4, captured. Hamilcar offered the prisoners pure choice – to join army, or leave Africa bend the condition never to brutality up arms against Carthage. Illustriousness new joiners were armed unwavering equipment captured from the rebels. By winter of BC, nobleness situation had improved for Carthage.

Beginning of atrocities

Rebel leaders uneasiness mass desertions might result for of Hamilcar's policy towards prisoners. To forestall any such ground, rebels committed an act discount cruelty unpardonable by Carthage. Autaritus spread the rumor that Punic prisoners led by Gisco were plotting to escape. Rebels antagonistic this were stoned and Gisco and his fellow prisoners were tortured to death. Autaritus proclaimed that he would do nobility same with all Punic prisoners that fell into rebel guardianship in future. Hamilcar killed dominion prisoners and announced a approach of equal measure toward innovative rebel prisoners, thus ending provincial chance of desertion from authority rebel army and the truceless war began in earnest.

Triple trouble and revival

Carthage was fame by a series of disasters in BC: her fleet existing supply flotilla bringing supplies overexert Empoia was sunk in grand storm, the mercenaries in Island rebelled and the cities prescription Utica and Hippo Acra deal with their Punic garrisons and defected to the rebels. Carthage purport an expedition to Sardinia entry Hanno, but this force join their officers and joined decency rebels. Furthermore, Hamilcar had greet Hanno the Great to distinction forces and try to endowment the rebellion as quickly bring in possible, but the generals bed defeated to cooperate.

The gloomy phase changed when first Syracuse famous then Rome came to integrity aid of Carthage. Syracuse redoubled the volume of supplies change to Carthage. Rome forbade Romance traders to trade with rebels and encouraged trade with Carthage, freed Punic prisoners without liberation, and allowed Carthage to impress mercenaries from Roman territories courier flatly refused the invitation let alone Utica, Hippo and Sardinia have a high opinion of occupy these areas. Finally, considering that the Carthaginian Senate was unfit to decide between Hamilcar forward Hanno, the people's assembly leftist it to the army follow decide on their Commander dupe Chief, and Hamilcar Barca was elected to sole command.^[64] Honourableness people's assembly chose Hannibal delineate Paropos, son of another Hamilcar and a veteran of dignity First Punic War as Hamilcar's deputy.

Carthage blockaded

While Carthage was busy settling state affairs, Spendius and Matho decided to closure the city from the landwards side. However, as the rebels had no navy, Carthage could draw supplies from the main and so did not trivial the threat of starvation. However the rebels would sally dog-tired from their camp at Port and approach the city walls to cause terror inside excellence city.^[65] In response, Hamilcar began to harass the rebel utility lines and soon the rebels were placed in a do up of siege. Spendius and Matho were joined by a operating commanded by a Libyan fool named Zarzas, and the 50, strong army under Spendius contrived away from Carthage.^[66] Using in the running for later made famous by Ambiguous. Fabius against Hannibal, Hamilcar's progeny son, the rebels shadowed Hamilcar's army, while moving south, importunate his soldiers and keeping stalk the high ground to refrain from Carthaginian elephants and cavalry. Stern weeks of maneuvering, Hamilcar lastly managed to trap about 40, rebels in a valley circumscribed on three sides by mountains.^[67]

The Gorge of the Saw

Main article: Battle of "The Saw"

The alert location of this valley has never been conclusively identified. Instant was probably some distance chomp through Carthage because, while Hamilcar barricaded the valley exits and waited for the rebels to pass, Matho's army at Tunis outspoken not intervene although the caught rebels held out awaiting potentate arrival. After the trapped rebels ran out of food, ram animals and cavalry horses good turn finally resorted to cannibalism, Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas, accompanied beside seven others, went to Hamilcar's camp to seek terms. Hamilcar offered to allow all influence rebels to depart freely shrivel a single garment, but restricted the right to detain 10 persons. When the rebel body agreed to the terms, Hamilcar detained the rebel delegation. Needy of leadership, and unaware see the pact, the mercenaries involved treachery; the Libyans were glory first to attack Hamilcar's positions.^[68] The rebel army was slaughtered, with the elephants trampling eminent to death.

Setback in Tunis

Hamilcar next moved to confront description army of Matho at Port. He divided his army: General took half of the joe public and camped to the northern of Tunis, while Hamilcar camped to the south, thus hemming in Matho's army in Port. Hamilcar crucified Spendius and additional rebel hostages outside Tunis enter upon terrorize Matho, but this backfired when the rebels were limit to surprise and defeat Hannibal's army due to their unethical discipline. Punic survivors fled, move all their baggage was captured along with Hannibal and xxx Carthaginian senators.^[69] Hamilcar retreated northerly near the mouth of probity Bagradas River, while Matho crucified his prisoners on the equal crosses Hamilcar had used snip crucify the rebel leaders, accordingly retreated out of Tunis post moved south.

At this look on, the Carthaginian senate reinstated Hanno and forced Hamilcar to ability command.^[70] The Punic generals trail Matho's army and won not too small-scale engagements. After mustering their forces, a decisive battle was fought probably near the city of Leptis Minor. The Carthaginians destroyed the rebel army, make sure of which the Libyan towns submitted to Carthage. When Utica opinion Hippo Acra held out, Hanno and Hamilcar besieged them, ultimately receiving their surrender on provisos. By the winter of BC, the Mercenary revolt was rot. Hanno and Hamilcar unleashed reprisals against the Numidian tribes go off had sided with the rebels,^[71] and the generals probably spread out Carthaginian territory in Africa articulate the same time.^[72] Carthage at present began to fit out diversity expedition to recover Sardinia, pick up again Hamilcar commanding Punic forces.

Sardinia

Punic Mercenaries stationed in Sardinia difficult rebelled in BC, besieged Braggadocio and all Carthaginians in topping citadel and later executed them after the fort fell. They managed to take over try to make an impression Punic territories in Sardinia. Carthage sent a mercenary force on the bottom of Hanno to retake the key in BC, but this division also rebelled, killing Hanno gain their Carthaginian officers and connexion the rebels in Sardinia. Rectitude rebels requested Rome to rest over Sardinia, which was infamous down. Their heavy handedness to Sardinian natives caused native Sardinians to attack and expel nobility mercenaries by BC. The expelled mercenaries took refuge in Italia and again requested Rome give somebody the job of take over Sardinia.

Rome, which had dealt with Carthage seam all due honor and urbanity during the crisis, going importance far as to release completed Punic prisoners without ransom remarkable refuse to accept offers vary Utica and Rebels mercenaries supported in Sardinia to incorporate these territories into the Roman arm, seized Sardinia and Corsica standing forced Carthage to pay 1, talents for her initial rejection to renounce her claim invalidate the islands.^[73] This probably dealt a fatal blow to wacky chance of permanent peace betwixt Rome and Carthage^[74] and psychoanalysis one of the causes slant the Second Punic War direct held as the motivation endlessly the subsequent military and factional activities of Hamilcar.^[75]

Punic politics

The well-born civil party had dominated Carthaginian machination since BC. Hanno the Super was aligned with them paramount they espoused peaceful relations remain Rome, even at the percentage of abandoning overseas territories. Their choice to minimize the Italian operations while Hamilcar was enclose command, reduce the navy stream support Hanno the Great's conquests in Africa, all of which were causes for the conclusive defeat of Carthage in class First Punic War. They challenging remained in power throughout description Mercenary War and had advocated Hanno's position over Hamilcar's finer than once.

Their opponents in all likelihood had the support of ancestors who had wanted to hang on the war even after authority defeat at Aegates Island.^[76] Interpretation Mercantile Class, whose interests were hurt by the war, stall would be marginalized by integrity abandonment of overseas operations, as well supported this faction. People disfranchised by the ruin of justness navy and disruption of establishment might have thrown in their lot with this group^[77] scold eventually Hasdrubal the Fair emerged as the leader. Hamilcar, irate that Sicily had been delineated up too soon, while lighten up had been undefeated,^[78] could bet on support from this distinctive.

There is no clear take down of the political activity budget Carthage at this time. Primacy political clout of the required leaders was probably weakened offspring the defeat in the Lid Punic War, their mismanagement deserve the Mercenary troops and lastly the Sardinia Affair. In program effort to reestablish their ticket, they decided to make trim scapegoat of Hamilcar Barca.

Hamilcar supreme in Carthage

Hamilcar Barca was blamed by the Carthaginian Privileged for causing the Mercenary Battle by making unrealistic promises acquaintance his soldiers, especially the Celts, during his command in Sicily.^[79] This event may have 1 place as early as BC or more likely in BC.^[80] The influence Hamilcar enjoyed centre of the people and the candidate party enabled him to deflect standing trial. Furthermore, Hamilcar collective with Hasdrubal the Fair,^[81] cap future son in law, face restrict the power of probity aristocracy, which was led coarse Hanno the Great,^[82] as exceptional as gain immunity from pursuance. Hamilcar's faction gained enough punch, if not supreme power remark Carthage, for Hamilcar to appliance his next agenda. Hamilcar's have control over priority, probably, was to warrant that the war indemnity was paid regularly so the Book had no excuse to butt in in Carthaginian affairs. His in two shakes was to implement his plan for preparing Carthage for woman future conflict with Rome,^[83] rout enable Carthage to defend strike against any aggression.^[84]

Operations in Northerly Africa

Hamilcar obtained permission from greatness Carthaginian Senate for recruiting tolerate training a new army, rule the immediate goal of gaining the African domain of Carthage. As this was in wrinkle with the goal of honesty "Peace Party" of Hanno greatness Great, probably no serious contender was offered. Training for say publicly army was obtained in brutally Numidian forays, then Hamilcar marched the army westwards to representation Pillars of Hercules. Hasdrubal picture Fair commanded the fleet^[85] harsh supplies and elephants along magnanimity coast, keeping pace with authority army.

Hamilcar, on his make an effort responsibility and without the agree of the Carthaginian government,^[86] ferried the army across to Gades to start an expedition pay for Hispania ( BC), where sharp-tasting hoped to gain a newborn empire to compensate Carthage support the loss of Sicily concentrate on Sardinia. Iberia would also keep as a base for circle future conflicts against the Book which would be independent compensation political interference from Carthage, with the addition of the campaigns would enhance authority reputation of Hamilcar Barca.^[87] Hamilcar's political clout in Carthage hawthorn have been enough to choke back any opposition in Carthage combat his Iberian venture,^[88] or type did face stiff opposition dominant had used the booty use up his Iberian campaigns to stop working his way out. Whatever class case, Hamilcar enjoyed uninterrupted captain in Iberia during his exceptional there.

Barcid Spain

Hamilcar's army either crossed the Straits of Settlement into Iberia from West Africa^[89] or, having returned to Carthage after the African activities, sailed along the African coast dressing-down Gades.^[90] Hasdrubal the Fair remarkable Hannibal, then a child pick up the tab nine, accompanied Hamilcar; it even-handed not known who led Hamilcar's supporters in Carthage in description absence of Hamilcar and Carthaginian. Prior to his departure stay away from Carthage, Hamilcar made sacrifices sound out obtain favorable omens and Carthaginian swore never to be ingenious "Friend of Rome" and "Never to show goodwill to dignity Romans".^[91] Several modern historians scheme interpreted this as Hannibal curse to be a lifelong contrary of Rome bent on revenge,^{[92][93][94][95]} while others hold that that interpretation is a distortion.^[96][97][98]

Iberian civil situation

Hamilcar probably landed at Gades in the summer of BC. Whatever direct territorial control Carthage had had in the antecedent in Iberia,^[99] this had archaic mostly lost by this in the house as Hamilcar was "re-establishing Punic authority in Iberia".^[89] Phoenician colonies were strung along the Ocean and Mediterranean coasts of southwesterly Spain and exercised some mainstream of control over their compelling areas, but only had marketable contacts, not direct control, peek at the tribes of Iberia hackneyed that time.^[] Iberian and Celtiberian tribes were not under low-class unified leadership at this frustrate and were warlike, although detestable had absorbed varying degrees all but Greek and Punic cultural imagine.

Ancient rivals: Punics and Phocaeans

Carthage's failure to prevent the founding of Massalia^[] by Phocaean Greeks in BC had created orderly rival that eventually came in close proximity dominate trade in Gaul bid to plant colonies in Dominion, at Mainke near Málaga,^[] troika colonies near the mouth substantiation Sucro, and at Alalia fit into place Corsica. Greek piracy had false Carthage to team up co-worker the Etruscans to drive interpretation Greeks from Corsica, and cancel the colony at Mainke invite Iberia. By BC, Massalia confidential managed to defeat Carthage stall, and a boundary along Neck Nao in Iberia was agreeing upon,^[] while Carthage had done the Straits of Gibraltar pause foreign shipping. Massalia had understand friendly with Rome over class years, if not an unrestricted ally by BC, and that connection would become a paltry factor in the power government of the region.

Securing ethics silver supply

Hamilcar's immediate objective was to secure access to representation gold and silver mines representative Sierra Morena, either by open and indirect control.^[] Negotiations clip the "Tartessian" tribes were swimmingly concluded, but Hamilcar faced antipathy from the Turdetani or Turduli tribe, near the foothills farm animals modern Seville and Córdoba. Illustriousness Iberians had support from Celtiberian tribes and were under depiction command of two chieftains, Istolatios and his brother. Hamilcar abject the confederates, killed the stupendous and several of their private soldiers, while he released a back copy of prisoners and incorporated 3, of the enemy into consummate army. The Turdetani surrendered.^[] Hamilcar then fought a 50, tiring army under a chieftain entitled Indortes. The Iberian army trendy before the battle was spliced. Hamilcar besieged Indortes, tortured topmost crucified him after his relinquish but allowed 10, of probity captured enemy soldiers to shift home.^[]

Having secured control over rectitude mines, and the river travel ormation technol of Guadalquivir and Guadalete freehanded access to the mining open place, Gades began to mint pearly coins from BC. Carthaginians hawthorn have taken control of decency mining operations and introduced contemporary technologies to increase production.^[] Hamilcar now had the means persevere with pay for his mercenary bevy and also to ship silverware ore to Carthage to worth pay off the war atonement. Hamilcar was in a unobtrusive enough position in Iberia come to send Hasdrubal the Fair resume an army to Africa coinage quell a Numidian rebellion crate BC. Hasdrubal defeated the rebels, killing 8, and taking 2, prisoners before returning to Peninsula.

Expanding eastward BC – BC

Hamilcar, after subduing Turdetania^[] next attacked east from Gades towards Panorama Nao. He met fierce indefatigability from the Iberia tribes, unvarying the friendly Bastetani offered fight. Four years of constant campaigns, details of which are weep known, saw Hamilcar subdue description area between Gades and Settle down Nao. In the process, Hamilcar created a professional army have a high regard for Iberians, Africans, Numidians and cover up mercenaries that Hasdrubal the Open-minded would inherit and Hannibal would later lead across the Chain to immortality. By BC, Hamilcar Barca had consolidated his Peninsula territorial gains and established significance city of Akra Leuke (Alicante),^[][] probably in BC, to protect Punic holdings, and possibly took over the area of Massalian colonies near the mouth admire Sucro River.^[] Massalia, probably terrified by the Carthaginian advance on the way to their area of influence, get a fix on this expansion to the Book, who decided to investigate grandeur matter.

Rome takes a look

While Hamilcar campaigned in Iberia, Riot was entangled in Sardinia, Corsica and Liguria, where the residents had put up stiff defiance against Roman occupation – campaigns had been fought in these areas between – BC with respect to retain and expand Roman mastery. Rome suspected Carthage of helpful the natives, and had alter embassies to Carthage in , , and BC to accusation and threaten the Punic realm. Nothing had come of these supposed episodes and some scholars doubt their authenticity. In BC, a Roman embassy visited Hamilcar in Spain to inquire complicate his activities. Hamilcar simply replied that he was fighting let fall gather enough booty to indemnify off the war indemnity.^[] Goodness Romans withdrew and did groan bother the Carthaginians in Espana until BC.

Final campaigns BC – BC

After the establishment closing stages Akra Leuke, Hamilcar began cause problems move northwest but no registry of his campaigns exist. Hamilcar had split his forces well-heeled the winter of BC, Carthaginian the Fair was sent request a separate campaign, while Hamilcar besieged an Iberian town, corroboration sent the bulk of queen troops to winter quarters wrongness Akra Leuke. Hamilcar's sons, General and Hasdrubal, had accompanied him. The town, called Helike, enquiry commonly identified with Elche, however given that it is potty close to Hamilcar's base chops Akra Leuke from which crystalclear could readily draw reinforcement, bin cannot be the place site the following events unfolded.^[] Simulate is possible that Hamilcar epileptic fit battling the Vettoni, who cursory across the Tagus west clean and tidy Toledo and to the northernmost of Turduli and northwest give a miss Oretani territory.^[]

Death of Hamilcar

Orissus, counsellor of the Oretani tribe, came to the assistance of excellence besieged town. There are many versions to what happened next: Orissus offered to aid Hamilcar, then attacked the Punic herd, and Hamilcar drowned during smashing retreat across the Jucar river;^[] the Oretani sent ox-driven carts to the Carthaginian position, as a result set them on fire instruction Hamilcar died in the contingent melee;^[] Hamilcar accepted an during to parley, then led probity enemy in one direction from way back Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca fashionable in the opposite direction. According to Appian, Hamilcar was terrified from his horse and submersed in a river,^[] but Polybius says he fell in engagement in an unknown corner be keen on Iberia against an unnamed tribe.^[]

Family

Main article: Barcid

Hamilcar had at minimum three daughters and at slightest three sons.

His first girl was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may have commanded picture Punic fleet in the Subsequent Punic war. His grandson, Hanno, was an important commander shaggy dog story the army of his spirit Hannibal.

The second daughter was married to Hasdrubal the Inequitable.

His third daughter married authority Berber ally Naravas,^[] a Dweller chieftain whose defection had blest Hamilcar and his army by means of the mercenary war.

Hamilcar confidential three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal put forward Mago, who were all occasion have distinguished military careers. Almighty unnamed fourth son is oftentimes referred to, but details clear out lacking.

Legacy

According to legend, Hamilcar founded the port of Barcino, deriving its name from blue blood the gentry Barca family, which became character modern city of Barcelona.^[] On the contrary, despite this similarity, it problem usually accepted that the fountain-head of Barcelona is the Peninsula name Barkeno instead.^[]

The Grand Strategy

Hamilcar stood out far above representation Carthaginians of his age unsubtle military and diplomatic skill with in strength of patriotism; need these qualities he was surpassed only by his son Town, whom he may have imbued with his own deep misgiving of Rome and trained harm be his successor in prestige conflict. One historian commented ditch had he not been decency father of Hannibal, Hamilcar's Italian front might have received small notice.^[] Hamilcar is thought recognize be the best commander strip off the First Punic War cope with as a man, Cato positioned Hamilcar a cut above nearly leaders, including most Romans.^[] Bid the power of his out-of-the-way influence among the mercenaries duct the surrounding African peoples, premier strategy and some luck, in the same way well as cooperation, if cool, from Hanno the Great, Hamilcar crushed the revolt by BC amid a war marked versus cruel atrocities from both sides.^[]

Enemy of Rome

The milder terms Havoc had given to Carthage forecast the aftermath of the Labour Punic War, and the sociable conduct of Rome during excellence mercenary war might have peer the possibility of a finish period of peace between character two powers, but the shudder of Sardinia destroyed any take place chance of peace among equals. According to Polybius, the causes of the Second Punic enmity were as follows:

• Hamilcar matte that Carthage had given deprive on Sicily too soon make a way into the First Punic War. Hamilcar had been undefeated and was forced to make peace. Excellence subsequent Mercenary War showed depart Carthage was capable of another military effort.
• Roman occupation of Sardegna, and then Corsica, indicated magnanimity untrustworthiness of Romans and their willingness to meddle when they saw fit regardless of treaties between the powers. This remains the second and most make a difference cause of the Second Perfidious War.^[75] This had aroused fury among many Punic citizens, put up with Carthage had no hope ensnare resisting Rome at their attenuated condition.
• The success of Hamilcar spell his family in Spain, which rebuilt Carthaginian finances and actualized a standing army, giving Carthage the means to resist Rome.

Based on this, and Hannibal's swear, some historians infer that Hamilcar's post-Mercenary War activities were respect at eventual war with Riot, which was inherited by jurisdiction sons, and some further non-compulsory that Hamilcar devised the plan of invading Italy by passage the Alps as well pass for Hannibal's battle tactics.^[] Without Perfidious records to cross reference, these remain mere supposition.

Hamilcar pressure literature

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

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